Who were the first people of Mesoamerica ?

Mesoamerica originated from the people who first crossed the land bridge connecting Alaska and Siberia. They traveled down to the areas near what is now Guatemala and Belize. These earliest known American settlers, the Olmecs, were the first permanent residents of America and predate the Mayans. The Olmecs existed as farmers just as the later Mayans did. 

The Olmecs lived in the area, initially settling along the coast's fertile shores and later moved into the...

Mesoamerica originated from the people who first crossed the land bridge connecting Alaska and Siberia. They traveled down to the areas near what is now Guatemala and Belize. These earliest known American settlers, the Olmecs, were the first permanent residents of America and predate the Mayans. The Olmecs existed as farmers just as the later Mayans did. 

The Olmecs lived in the area, initially settling along the coast's fertile shores and later moved into the mountains as well. They are recorded to have existed from about 1200BC to 450BC. Aside from farming they were well known for their sculptures of huge heads. Other elements of life the Olmecs introduced that later appear in the Mayan and later the Aztec cultures are the concept of a calendar, centralized buildings for worship and spectator sports. The religion of the Olmecs appears to have included animal gods. Firm, factual knowledge about their disappearance from the area does not exist. Some say a natural disaster such as a volcano wiped them out while others say they relocated due to the weather changes or harsh geography. 

The legacy of the Olmec lived on with later cultures in the form of art sculptures and animal gods. 

What does anaphora add to asyndeton?

Anaphora and asyndeton are both literary (specifically rhetorical) devices that have their origins in greek philosophers. Anaphora etymologically means "to bring back" and is contemporarily used to refer to the repetition of a word/phrase at the beginning of sentences or clauses. The rhetorical effect of this device is to emphasize and elicit an emotional response to particular concepts or ideas -- through subjecting memory to repetitious inscriptions  and the production of a pleasurable rhythm. The...

Anaphora and asyndeton are both literary (specifically rhetorical) devices that have their origins in greek philosophers. Anaphora etymologically means "to bring back" and is contemporarily used to refer to the repetition of a word/phrase at the beginning of sentences or clauses. The rhetorical effect of this device is to emphasize and elicit an emotional response to particular concepts or ideas -- through subjecting memory to repetitious inscriptions  and the production of a pleasurable rhythm. The most famous example is the repetition of the "I" in the quote "I came, I saw, I conquered." In contrast, asyndeton etymologically means "unconnected" and is used in the present to refer to purposely missing conjunctions  -- such as: "but," "or," "and." The intended rhetorical effect is both to produce a dramatic aesthetic and to leave open a degree of semantic ambiguity. The same quote by Julius Caesar, "I came, I saw, I conquered," also is an example of an asyndeton - since there is no "and" before the last clause in the series. However, these two rhetorical devices are not in immediate conversation with one another. Anaphora is conventionally contrasted to epistrophe - referring to repetition that occurs at the end of a clause or sentence. Where, asyndeton is normally juxtaposed with the concept polysyndeton - which refers to the unnecessary use of conjunctions, when commas would suffice. 

What is the proper role of government in times of economic crisis?

There is considerable debate on this question among various economists.The general mainstream view is called the New Neoclassical Synthesis: Based primarily on the work of John Maynard Keynes, it says that the government has a vital role to play in stabilizing the economy during times of crisis by two basic methods.The first is monetary policy, the decision of the central bank as to what target interest rates to set, which determines the...

There is considerable debate on this question among various economists.

The general mainstream view is called the New Neoclassical Synthesis: Based primarily on the work of John Maynard Keynes, it says that the government has a vital role to play in stabilizing the economy during times of crisis by two basic methods.

The first is monetary policy, the decision of the central bank as to what target interest rates to set, which determines the amount of money in circulation. When the economy is in recession, the central bank should lower interest rates to increase the amount of money in circulation and thereby offset the recession.

The second is fiscal policy, the decision of the government as to how much to spend and how much to take in taxes. During recessions, especially very severe recessions where monetary policy is insufficient, the central bank should run a cyclical deficit, spending more money than they take in taxes, in order to increase the demand for goods and lift the economy out of recession. Then, once full employment is restored, they should balance their budget or even run a surplus in order to pay down the debt they incurred in the recession.

This is the mainstream view, but there are many economists who believe that it is no longer adequate. At the extreme left there are Marxian economists who believe that the government should take a great deal of control over the economy; at the extreme right there are Austrian economists who believe that the government should have almost no involvement in the economy whatsoever. There are also alternative centrist views, such as those that apply insights from behavioral economics to understand the causes of recessions and find better ways to prevent them or respond to them.

What is one similarity between the speaker in "Young" by Anne Sexton and the narrator of "Eleven" by Sandra Cisneros?

I assume you’re referring to the poem “Young” by Anne Sexton and “Eleven” by Sandra Cisneros. 

It can be difficult to find any similarities between the narrator of “Eleven” and the speaker in “Young” on the first read.  While in “Eleven” Rachel sees herself as a conglomeration of all the years of her life – as eleven, but “also ten, and nine, and eight, and seven, and six, and five, and four, and three, and...

I assume you’re referring to the poem “Young” by Anne Sexton and “Eleven” by Sandra Cisneros. 

It can be difficult to find any similarities between the narrator of “Eleven” and the speaker in “Young” on the first read.  While in “Eleven” Rachel sees herself as a conglomeration of all the years of her life – as eleven, but “also ten, and nine, and eight, and seven, and six, and five, and four, and three, and two, and one,”  Anne Sexton in “Young” recalls a much less specified time in her childhood, possibly her entire childhood wrapped up in this eternal summer world she describes in the poem.  And her description is peaceful and nostalgic, while Rachel’s story instead encompasses the pain of having all those young, immature years nested inside of her; the incongruity of being right but powerless because of her age, and the embarrassment of being eleven years old and yet still crying like a three-year-old in front of the whole class.  As we read Rachel’s story she is living it; as we read Sexton’s poem, it is clearly a memory.

One similarity, perhaps, is the precocity and reflective nature of the two young girls; Rachel clearly has a philosophy on growing older and is able to extricate her own consciousness from the act of living in order to be able to analyze the act and its progress, which can be a challenge for many young children.  Sexton notes that she “told the stars my questions.”  She has questions, and paints them in a reflective, earnest light, telling them to the “wise stars” and yet being wise enough herself not to ask – not to expect any response.

One could also assume they are similar in their aloneness, though the nature of this state is different for both of them.  While Sexton is alone and content, presumably by her own devices, happy to have her contemplations be her company, Rachel is isolated by others as being a culprit – they all assume the sweater belongs to her – and is unable to defend herself.  In either circumstance, however, this lonesomeness makes the piece itself possible, and is the catalyst for the story being told.

One last, quick option:  in both pieces the girls’ parents are described in a loving, nurturing light, one could argue literally so in the case of “Young.”  So whatever the reason for their isolation and whatever the source and content of their reflections, they know that home is their anchor and their parents conjurors of a calm sea. 

And, as always with poetry, these analyses are subjective – don’t see them as 100% anything – right, wrong, complete.  There’s always more to see and different angles from which to see it.

How does love affect Lady Macbeth?

Unlike many marriages among the nobility, who often marry for money or political connections, it does seem as though there is real love between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth.  When he writes to her, he calls her "my dearest partner of greatness" and expresses his desire to acquaint her with what the Weird Sisters told him so that she "might'st not lose the dues of rejoicing by being ignorant of what greatness is promised [her]" (1.5.11,...

Unlike many marriages among the nobility, who often marry for money or political connections, it does seem as though there is real love between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth.  When he writes to her, he calls her "my dearest partner of greatness" and expresses his desire to acquaint her with what the Weird Sisters told him so that she "might'st not lose the dues of rejoicing by being ignorant of what greatness is promised [her]" (1.5.11, 1.5.12-13).  In calling her his "partner," Macbeth signals the equality in their relationship, and in expressing his wish that she feel all the joy of his news as soon as possible, he shows how much he truly does care for her feelings.

When he arrives at their home, he refers to her as "My dearest love," and they have a very familiar exchange (1.5.67).  It is clear that each knows what the other is thinking, and they do not even have to speak their intentions aloud in order to know that the other is on the same page.  When she asks when Duncan will leave their home, Macbeth says, "Tomorrow, as he purposes" (1.5.70).  In other words, Duncan will leave tomorrow -- or so he thinks.  Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are two peas in a ruthless pod.  She tells him, "Leave all the rest to me," assuring him that she will take care of the entire plan (1.5.86).

Their love seems to affect her insofar that it makes her want to take care of him.  She is concerned that he is too gentle and compassionate to find the quickest way to the throne, and so she nudges him to do whatever is necessary for their mutual success.  It is difficult to determine how much of this can be imputed to her desire for power or to her desire to see him in power.  In a twisted way, however, she wants power and she wants it with Macbeth, and it is only after he begins to make plans without her (such as arranging for the murders of Banquo and Fleance as well as the Macduff family) that she seems to give in to her guilt.  After the banquet scene, we no longer see this once-happy couple together; we only find out her response to the murders of the Macduff family when she sleepwalks.  Her love for Macbeth essentially leads her to create a monster she can no longer control, and she ends up killing herself as a result of it.

How does the saying, "No good deed goes unpunished," relate to the events in chapter 11 of Freak the Mighty?

Chapter 11, titled "The Damsel of Distress," is the story of Kevin and Max attempting to do a good deed and the terrible payment they get for their troubles.  The boys find a purse in a storm drain; when they check it for identification, they find the name of Loretta Lee.  Freak insists on going on a quest to return the purse to her, despite Max's warnings that the address in the Testaments is a...

Chapter 11, titled "The Damsel of Distress," is the story of Kevin and Max attempting to do a good deed and the terrible payment they get for their troubles.  The boys find a purse in a storm drain; when they check it for identification, they find the name of Loretta Lee.  Freak insists on going on a quest to return the purse to her, despite Max's warnings that the address in the Testaments is a dangerous location.  They find the apartment and are met by two very scary characters: Loretta and her boyfriend, Iggy Lee.  The boys try desperately to get away from Loretta and Iggy as soon as they deliver the purse; they can sense the evil surrounding the two adults, but they are trapped.  Soon Loretta and Iggy recognize Max as the son of "Killer Kane."  This is the first time Kevin has heard about this part of Max's life, and Max is terrified:

Meanwhile Freak is giving me this look like he has no idea what's going on, and that look scares me more than Iggy Lee and all his tattoos.

Then Loretta unknowingly teases Kevin in the worst possible way:  She pretends she knew his father:

"Hey, midget man? I know all about you. Your old man was a magician, did-you know that?"
Freak is scuttling around behind me, keeping out of her way, but when she says that, I can tell he wants to know about his father, if maybe he really was a magician.
"Yeah," Loretta says. "Right after you was born. He must be a magician, because as soon as he heard the magic words 'birth defect,' he disappeared."

Both boys are "rewarded" for their efforts at trying to do a good deed with cruelty and heartache from these hateful, selfish adults.

In Stockton's "The Lady, or the Tiger?" how is the king’s arena an agent of poetic justice?

Poetic Justice is defined as the ideal distribution of rewards, but many times in literature it tends to be an ironic twist of fate that delivers an intellectual punch. Such is the case in "The Lady, or the Tiger?" The king is described as having "barbaric idealism." As a result, he creates an extreme justice system that is based on chance, but is also believed by the king to be his ideal distribution of rewards,...

Poetic Justice is defined as the ideal distribution of rewards, but many times in literature it tends to be an ironic twist of fate that delivers an intellectual punch. Such is the case in "The Lady, or the Tiger?" The king is described as having "barbaric idealism." As a result, he creates an extreme justice system that is based on chance, but is also believed by the king to be his ideal distribution of rewards, or poetic justice.

A criminal is given a choice between two doors; behind one is a reward and freedom, and behind the other is a fatal consequence such as a hungry tiger. The philosophy behind the arena is described as follows:

"The institution was a very popular one. When the people gathered together on one of the great trial days, they never knew whether they were to witness a bloody slaughter or a hilarious wedding. The element of uncertainty lent an interest to the occasion which it could not otherwise have attained. Thus, the masses were entertained and pleased, and the thinking part of the community could bring no charge of unfairness against this plan; for did not the accused person have the whole matter in his own hands?"

The above passage explains the thinking behind the functioning of the arena, as well as the justification for its alleged equitable treatment of justice. The problem with the arena is that it is maintained and controlled by a barbaric king. The arena is only used when the king sees fit, so it seems to represent a fair play by chance for the accused, but the execution of justice is solely in the hands of the king.